T Unit Measurement in Linguistics

A T-Unit is a measurement in  linguistics, and refers to a main clause plus any subordinate clauses that may be attached to it. As defined by Kellogg W. Hunt (1964), the T-unit, or minimal terminable unit of language, was intended to measure the smallest word group that could be considered a grammatical sentence, regardless of how it was punctuated. Research suggests that the length of a T-unit may be used as an index of syntactic complexity. In the 1970s, the T-unit became an important unit of measurement in sentence-combining research. T Unit Analysis T-unit analysis, developed by Hunt (1964) has been used extensively to measure the overall syntactic complexity of both speech and writing samples (Gaies, 1980). The T-unit is defined as consisting of a main clause plus all subordinate clauses and nonclausal structures that are attached to or embedded in it (Hunt, 1964). Hunt claims that the length of a T-unit is parallel to the cognitive development of a child and thus the T-unit analysis provides an intuitively satisfying and stable index of language development. The T-units popularity is due to the fact that it is a global measure of linguistic development external to any particular set of data and allows for meaningful comparison between first and second language acquisition. . . .T-unit analysis has been successfully used by Larsen-Freeman Strom (1977) and Perkins (1980) as an objective measure to evaluate the quality of ESL student writing. T-unit measures used in this study include words per composition, sentences per composi tion, T-units per composition, error-free T-units per composition, words in error-free T-units per composition, T-unit length, and ratio of errors versus T-units per composition. (Anam Govardhan, Indian Versus American Students Writing in English. Dialects, Englishes, Creoles, and Education, ed. by Shondel J. Nero. Lawrence Erlbaum, 2006)By analogy with the way modifiers work in sentences, [Francis] Christensen thinks of subordinate T-units as modifying the more general T-unit that semantically encompasses them. The point can be illustrated by the following sentence of William Faulkners: Joads lips stretched tight over his long teeth a moment, and he licked his lips, like a dog, two licks, one in each direction from the middle. Like a dog modifies licked his lips, a relatively general description which could encompass various other types of lip-licking. Similarly, two licks starts to explain how a dog licks its lips, hence is more specific than like a dog. And one in each direction from the middle explains two licks even more specifically. (Richard M. Coe, Toward a Grammar of Passages. Southern Illinois Univ. Press, 1988) T-Units and Ordered Development Since young children tend to connect short main clauses with and, they tend to use relatively few words/T-unit. But as they mature, they begin to use a range of appositives, prepositional phrases, and dependent clauses that increase the number of words/T-unit. In subsequent work, Hunt (1977) demonstrated that there is a developmental order in which students develop the capacity to perform types of embedding. Other researchers (e.g. ODonnell, Griffin Norris, 1967) used Hunts unit of measurement to conclusively show that the words/T-unit ratio went up in both oral and written discourse as writers matured. (Thomas Newkirk, The Learner Develops: The High School Years. Handbook of Research on Teaching the English Language Arts, 2nd ed., ed. by James Flood et al. Lawrence Erlbaum, 2003)

Is Routine Circumcision of Infants Ethical Free Essays

History of Circumcision: Reviewing the history of circumcision and the many misguided reasons for its practice will help form an understanding of the multifaceted issues concerning routine infant circumcision. Some of the earliest evidence of male circumcision comes from Egypt around the year 3000 BC. However, researchers studying this practice do not understand or agree on its purpose. We will write a custom essay sample on Is Routine Circumcision of Infants Ethical? or any similar topic only for you Order Now Some researches believe that circumcision was a form of branding for slaves while others thought it to be from the priestly class as a form of religious ritual. But when is more pertinent to this argument is that the early Greeks and Romans outlawed male circumcision believing it to be a barbaric form of mutilation of male genitalia. The first documented purpose for circumcision is in the Old Testament Scriptures (Gen 17:10) concerning the covenant between Abraham and God, representative of the relationship between Israel and Yahweh. According to the governing doctrinal resource for Catholics worldwide, the Catechism of the Catholic Church, the explanation for Old Testament circumcision is in section 1150. 1150 – †¦Among these liturgical signs from the Old Covenant are circumcision, anointing and consecration of kings and priests, laying on of hands, sacrifices, and above all the Passover. The Church sees in these signs a prefiguring of the sacraments of the New Covenant. † The circumcision of Jesus in the New Testament explains that when Jesus came, as the fulfillment of prophecy that the new covenant manifested through th e innocent blood of Jesus replaces once and for all the old covenant through Father Abraham. There is no longer a need for animal sacrifices and the early Christian community determined that baptism was to be the new sign of the covenant. â€Å"527- Jesus’ circumcision, on the eighth day after his birth, is the sign of his incorporation into Abraham’s descendants, into the people of the covenant. It is the sign of his submission to the Law and his deputation to Israel’s worship, in which he will participate throughout his life. This sign prefigures that â€Å"circumcision of Christ† which is Baptism. Routine infant circumcision in the United States became prevalent in the Victorian age (1840) and reached its height during the Cold War (1940) when technology, hospitals, and modern medicine sought to institutionalize the birthing process. Including more than 90% of boys, infant circumcisions became so routine that doctors performed the procedure without actually receiving consent from the parents. Parents not desiring the process for their sons wer e considered negligent. Given the history and the misguided reasons for practicing routine circumcision, â€Å"Why would a parent authorize, a doctor perform, or an insurance company pay for, the routine circumcision of infants? † A. Health Reasons- certainly it would be ethical to surgically remove the penis foreskin of a male infant if in some way it presented a health risk; there is no real argument here. B. Tradition-for generations, infants have undergone various procedures under the reasoning of â€Å"tradition. From binding feet in Japan (which has been banned) to piercing ears, and stretching necks, tradition plays a large part in the decision for circumcision. Many men, who like their own fathers were circumcised as infants, think that their child in turn might as well be circumcised too. However, is there any real thinking going on here at all? I argue that just because everyone else jumps off a bridge, is that any reason for you to jump off as well. Religious Beliefs- I would have to say yes, it is ethical to have a child circumcised if you are following a true religious belief. The parent who has legal authority over their child may choose (and in fact is morally obligated to choose) to do what they believe is in the best interest of the child. Therefore, for the Jews who believe that the outward sign of circumcision establishes their child in a covenantal relationship with God; they are well within their ethical right and responsibility to have their sons circumcised. Freedom of religion is one of the building blocks of our free nation. Circumcision mentality: Today thanks in part to our mass media; modern society is ruled by prevailing mentalities. These pervasive mindsets allure us to what appears to be the benefits of circumcision, while completely obscuring any possible negative ramifications. The mentality is permeated into societal norms, which are almost impossible to resist, and are most difficult to correct. An accepted societal mentality is further driven by force of habit. Among other things, we live in a society that assumes that a male infant in the United States is routinely circumcised. Seldom are discussions of the pros and cons of the procedure brought to the attention of the parent, unless the parent specifically requests it. Even then, the doctor may say, â€Å"It is not medically necessary but if the boys father has been circumcised, then you should probably have your son circumcised as well†Ã¢â‚¬ ¦or â€Å"you wouldn’t want him to look different than his friends when he becomes a high school student in the locker room. † Medical Ethics: When looking into medical ethics, the Oath of Hippocrates standard for medical professionals since 400 BCE shed some additional light onto the situation. From the Oath: â€Å"I do solemnly swear by whatever I hold most sacred, that I will be loyal to the profession of medicine†¦that I will exercise my art, solely for the cure of my patients and the prevention of disease†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Therefore, considering the Hippocrates oath, a routine circumcision of an infant male does not fall into the category of â€Å"†¦curing a patient, and the preventing of disease†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Why then would doctors perform such an unnecessary procedure Catholic Theological Ethics: As a student of Theology, from a Roman Catholic perspective I have yet to hear a discussion concerning the morality of circumcision. However after researching the Catechism of the Catholic Church (CCC) under the subtitle â€Å"Mutilation of body parts† section 2297 reads, â€Å"Except when performed for strictly therapeutic medical reasons, directly intended amputations, mutilations, and sterilizations performed on innocent persons are against the moral law. † VI. Personal Ethics: Each parent possesses the God given right to make certain decisions on behalf of their young children who cannot make these decisions themselves. A good example is immunizations; no infant has the capability to make this decision, so the parent, in the child’s best interest makes the decision to have the child immunized. I am a mother of four sons, born in the years 1983, 1985, 1991 and 1992. Although the father of the boys was circumcised however, none of our boys is circumcised. To this day, none of them has ever had trouble of any kind, nor has it been an issue in the locker room. The decision to leave the boys as they were born, uncircumcised, was based on the fact that it was not a medical necessity, that anesthetic was not used (they had just been traumatized in birth), and that there was a possibility of complications from the procedure. Parents need to take a more proactive stance in researching the pros and cons of the procedure, and should spend at least as much time and energy on this decision as they do in picking out a new car! VII. Objective – If the objective of the National Organization of Circumcision of Infants Resource Center is to reduce the number of routine circumcisions performed, I believe that to pursue this objective through legal channels alone would be fruitless. Big government has more than enough authority in dictating to families what they can and cannot do for their children. Your best bet would be to lobby the insurance companies. Perhaps you could demand coverage for an elective surgical procedure such as having your breasts enlarged and when they tell you no that it is just a cosmetic or optional procedure, sue them for discriminatory practices. The last thing an insurance company wants is a class action lawsuit. It would be simple for them to simply take routine infant circumcisions off their list of covered procedures. In addition, a non-covered expense for an unnecessary procedure may prompt parents to give this issue closer consideration. D. Moral Law: Next, one must consider which law is the governing authority in your life. The Moral Law operates under a set of religious beliefs. Found within the moral law are the Jewish Law, and the Christian Law (for the sake of brevity we will not mention other religious groups here). The Jewish Law of Circumcision establishes a covenant between God and Abraham (Gen 17:10), representative of Yahweh and Israel. The Christian Law comes into effect with the birth of Jesus. Jesus becomes the new sign of the covenant, with the Baptism of infants as the effective cause. Concerning Civil Law under which all persons are bound; it has little criteria for establishing ethical arguments. One may ask questions of the law: if allowing an un-anaesthetized circumcision is lawful, and what recourse would a child have if the procedure causes permanent damage to the male organ but these are considered civil, not ethical. Additionally, why would an insurance company pay for such an unnecessary procedure (when so many don’t pay for many true necessities)? Perhaps it should be regarded as â€Å"elective surgery† and therefore it would be a charge paid for entirely by the parent requesting the procedure, not as an â€Å"ordinary and customary† procedure paid for by the insurance companies. However, the Hebrew people alone practiced the circumcision of infants on the 8th day after birth. The child’s father, using a flint knife, preformed circumcision How to cite Is Routine Circumcision of Infants Ethical?, Papers

Essentials of a Valid Contract free essay sample

To be enforceable by law an agreement must possess the essential elements of a valid contract as laid down by Sec. 10 of Contract Act in the following terms; ‘All agreements are contracts if they are made by the free consent of parties competent to contract, for a lawful consideration and with a lawful object, and are not hereby expressly declared to be void. ’ Following are the conditions for validity of the contract in detail. 1. Offer and Acceptance: There must be an agreement based on a lawful offer made by one party and a lawful acceptance of that offer from the other party. The adjective lawful implies that the offer and acceptance must satisfy the requirements of the Contract Act in relation thereto. 2. Legal Relationship: The parties must have intended their agreement to have legal consequences and legal obligations. Agreements of a social or domestic nature do not contemplate legal relations, and as such they do not give rise to a contract. We will write a custom essay sample on Essentials of a Valid Contract or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page 3. Lawful Consideration: Consideration means something in return (quid pro quo). For a valid contract both parties must have provided consideration, i. e. each side must promise to give or do something for other. However, it must be legal, real, harmless and not immoral. 4. Competent Parties: The parties to an agreement must be competent to contract. The contracting parties must be of the age of majority and of sound mind and must not be disqualified by any law to which they are subject. (Section 11) 5. Free Consent: Free consent of all parties is another essential element. Consent means that the parties must have agreed upon same things in the same sense. Consent is said to be free if it is not obtained by coercion, undue influence, fraud, misrepresentation or mistake. (Section 14) 6. Lawful Object: Object means ‘the purpose of entering into a contract’. For the formation of a valid contract it is also necessary that the parties to an agreement must agree for a lawful object. According to Sec. 23 the object of an agreement is lawful, if it is Not forbidden by law; Not fraudulent; or Not involves or implies injury to the person or property of another Not regarded immoral by the Court Not opposed to public policy. Not immoral. 7. Not Expressly Declared Void: The agreement must not have been expressly declared to be void under the Act. Sec. 24-30 and Sec56 specifies certain types of expressly declared void agreements: Agreement in restrain of marriage, trade, or legal proceedings. (sec. 26,27,27) Agreement by way of wager. (sec. 30) Agreement to do impossible acts. (sec. 56) Agreement the meaning of which is not certain. (sec. 29) 8. Writing and Registration: The prescribed legal formalities of writing, registration, etc. necessary for the agreement to be enforceable by law must have been observed. It must be in writing, properly attested by witnesses and registered if so required by law. The absence of any of the essentials explained above will not result in a valid contract but a void contract.

The Unknown Citizen Analysis Essays - The Necklace,

The Unknown Citizen Analysis The story The Star, which was written in 1970s, is trying to say that we need to understand the truth of our fate rather than put on blinders and quit refusing everything else that we dont want to see. In the story The Necklace written by Guy De Maupassant the woman worked herself to the bone for ten years trying to pay off the debt used to pay for the necklace she lost at the ball. The woman in this story is a poor pretty woman who thought she deserved a better life than one that she already had. The main character in this story is a woman named Louis, the daughter of simple working class man. Both stories include a sub theme of a hope for a better life, in which all men were created equal and all the ugly injustices in the world would cease to exist. But the cold hard fact is that we humans have this innate sense of optimism, which blocks our thinking for reality, because without it we would have no reason for living. In the case of he woman in the story The necklace the object being the necklace, which she eventually loses, and trys to replace. Instead of hiding the truth and facing the music, which was harder, to take than when she lied. The old adage which says, What a tangled web weave when we first start to deceive. We humans can't handle the truth. We think we know what is the truth. What that really is just bull*censored*. It's arrogance-playing tricks on our minds making us think we are in control of our lives. If we really were in control of our lives then why can't we control every little aspect of it that gives discomfort? Because we can't, because we don't know how, and eventually the truth will show that is we don't what the truth really is. Using the slippery slope logic one can conclude that the two stories are more similar than they are different but because the assignment at hand requires for me to compare and contrast in an illustrative manner then I guess I should start. In the story the Star the setting is on a rocket ship with astronauts and the setting in the necklace is old France in the late 1970's. The Star is a science fiction story while the necklace is an illustrative story. In the necklace the story is told from the third people point of view compared to the Star's point of view is in the first person. The necklace discusses the social classes distinction in detail while in the star is describes the Astrology in detail. The person who wrote the necklace was French was illustrative the author of the star was clearly American. The main focus of the story is based on the importance of having money while the star is about the survival of the fittest. The similarities in both stories include that both deal with theme of hope. One is more graphic in the account of survival as portrayed in the star but the details in how the girl had to work hard in how each detail in her work day was shown through words was illustrative. Both deal with the issue of false pretense that living a certain life would bring true happiness, which in both cases should that, it didn't. The dismal setting Star is in contrast with the grandeur at which the Necklace is played out. The false hope that we control our own destiny is both misinterpreted by everyone. That is why these two stories, which are about two different subjects, seem to have the same effect on a person, which is depression. Compare and Contrast the Star and The Necklace Glen Gemeniano March 7, 2000 Example Illustration ENG 1A COLE M/1:00pm-4:00pm Bibliography WH AUDEN, The Unknown Citizen Thesis and Dissertations

MIDDLE EAST Essays - Western Asia, Arabian Peninsula, Free Essays

MIDDLE EAST Essays - Western Asia, Arabian Peninsula, Free Essays MIDDLE EAST MIDDLE EAST Regional Makeup- There are three main regions that make up the Middle East. The Fertile Cresent it includes the countries of Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, Isreal, and Jordan. It is a 1000 mile long area of, fertile land and is shaped like a cresent moon. Another region is the Highlands it includes the countries of Turkey, Iran, and Afghanistan.A sereies of mountain ranges stretch through these countries. They are the Taurus Mountains,Elburz Mountains, and the Zagros Mountains.A third region is the Arabian Peninsula it is bordered by the Red Sea, Persian Gulf and,Arabian Sea. Its land area is about 1 milloin squaremiles Saudi Arabia the largest country in the Middle East takes up much of the area. Much of the rest is covered by the Rub' al-Khali or the empty quarter. Physical Features- There are many physical features made up of water such as seas the Red, Mediterranean, Dead, Caspian, Arabain, and Black. Rivers the Euphrates and Tigris are the main rivers. Straits the Bosporus and the Dardanelles. Gulfs Aden, Persian, and Oman. There is also two plateaus the Iranian and the Anatolian and three main mountain chains Zagros, Elburz, and the Taurus. Deserts the Rub' al-Khali (empty quater). Lifestyles- If you lived in the Middle East you would probally not have much money and no material things. You have to work all day to survive the types of work you would probally be doing is herding sheep,weaving baskets,selling fruit at the markets,and trading goods. Languages- Pastro,Dari,Farsi,Turkish,Kurdish,Arabic,Persian,Hebrew,English,French, and Armenian. Major agricultural,manufactured, and exported products- Exports-Crude Oil,Petroleum, Services, Machinery,Diamonds, and Natural Gas. Imports-Motor Vehicles, Machinery,Food,and Crude Oil. Agriculture-sheep and fruits. The thing that interested me most about the Middle East is that if you are a muslim you must visit Mecca at least once in your life if you can afford it. That interests me because if you are catholic you do not have to visit Vatican City home of the Pope. Another thing that interested me about the muslim religion is that you must pray in the direction of Mecca wich is the most holy city in the muslim religion. Extra tidbits of information- In our textbooks it states that three major religions were started in the Middle East they were Judism,Christianity,and Islamic but I found out that a fourht major religion was also started there it is Zoroastrianism. The meaning for the word muslim is "Those who surrender to gods will" In sixth century B.C. the Persians overran the whole Middle East and set up a ruling system that became the model for all later empires.

Improving Waste Management Strategies for Small Livestock Farms Term Paper

Improving Waste Management Strategies for Small Livestock Farms - Term Paper Example The operations of CAFOs lead to production of wastes like manure, litter and the waste water from operations. They are known to have a high content of nitrogen, phosphorus, other metals and a host of harmful bacteria if not managed all these harmful substances can easily get into the environment. It is of importance that factors should put in place to prevent pollution from these small AFOs. The average size of farms has increased steadily over the last several years of this is due to the lucrative livestock industry, which has been known to yield high profits. Six major air pollutants have been identified as coming from AFOs areas or any animal housing areas, animal waste treatment areas they are known to highly contribute to the greenhouse gas emissions. They Include; ammonia nitrous oxide, methane, hydrogen sulfide, carbon dioxide. The best way to combat these in small farms is in the building of bio gas digesters, which provide cooking gases well as electricity and harness danger ous gases like methane preventing it from getting into the atmosphere (Ciravolo p 259). Though this has been known to be a capital intensive venture individuals, may form small organizations with a cooperative like to set up so that they can put the necessary infrastructure in place for the harnessing of these gases. This will also enable them to harness these gases in large scales, and this can lead to a viable economic return from its sales in the neighboring households. However, this is not a new approach and the stakeholders have to embrace technological means to ensure that they have the best approach to guarantee a clean environment as well as an effective conducive environment to coexist with other small scale farmers. Another major contributor is the odorous gases which lead to anaerobic degradation. Anaerobic degradation involves the decline of composite organic compounds to a range of odorous VFAs by bacteria that form acids. These bacteria alter VFAs to odorless methane a nd carbon dioxide. If these anaerobic components are in equilibrium, most redolent compounds are removed. The governments ought to recognize the status of small-scale livestock farmers and offer incentives to enable them to efficiently deal with waste management. This may be in the form of subsidies, or tax waivers for those who efficiently comply with the regulations put in place. Manure is a byproduct of the whole aspect of livestock production though it is normally viewed as a useful by-product mostly by the farmers. It still poses serious environmental problems if not utilized, applied or disposed in the right manner. Manure contains pathogens and bacteria from within the systems of these animals eliminated as waste products. These pose a big challenge to even the farmers themselves. Pathogens also pose a major challenge; it mainly gets its way to underground water percolation Percolating water provides the adequate mechanism for percolation of microorganisms through soil profil es. In inundated flow, water passes the soil filtering process thus; taking microorganisms with it through the soil profile the best way to address the pathogen problem is by carrying out process like air drying. Air drying is the process through which Animal wastes like manure is desiccated on sand beds basins or any other exposure to the

Global Trade Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Global Trade - Essay Example Consequently, fair trade has not developed in Third World countries, such as those of Africa and Latin America. Globalization is a post-World War II phenomenon that evolved based on the need to identify ways to promote economic progress among newly independent countries that used to be colonies. According to Piasecki and Wolnicki (2004), "After the second World War, there was widespread interest among economists in finding solutions to the poverty and underdevelopment left behind by the disintegrating colonial system" (par. 3). Experiments with planned economies in the 1950s and 1960s were met with only limited success, and frequent failure, in the developing world. "Until the 1980s, a score of developing nations experimented with non-market theories and concepts, but with rather limited success. Brazil, India experienced a few years of non-sustainable growth in the 1960s. Unfortunately, none of these countries could match the successes of those that chose the mixed economy and the market system in 1990s" (par. 8). By the 1980s, it became apparent that Third World development lagged and there was a need for a new approach. "By the 1980s, against many prominent economists' expectations, development had not materialized in the Third World - with the exception of the Gulf nations. Even in countries such as Qatar, Kuwait, and Saudi Arabia, where significant growth was observed, employment gains were generally unsatisfactory. Everywhere else in the developing world inequality and poverty grew. In addition, inflow of capital and Western consumption standards challenged traditional sectors and the existing power structures. As a result, tensions between modernizers and Islamic traditionalists heightened" (par. 9). In other parts of the world, the 1980s also brought a realization that economic development approaches had not been adequate. The 1980s came to be known as Latin America's "lost decade," in which there was "mounting debt, inflation, and negative growth" throughout much of the region (par. 15). A consensus began to grow around the idea that "a free market and open economy supported development far better than any form of protectionism and state interventionism." A new model of global capitalism, spearheaded by America, began to take hold in the 1990s in the hopes of reversing the economic stagnation in the Third World that had marked the decades since World War II. A theory began to take hold that opening up economies, spurring international investment, and knocking down trade barriers would produce a rising economic tide that would benefit both the developed and the developing world. It was hoped that multinational corporations let loose to pursue their profits across political boundaries would be the engine that spurred a new era of global economic growth. The new economic model was based on "tough fiscal and monetary policy, deregulation, foreign trade and capital flow liberalization, elimination of government subsidies, moderate taxation, liberalization of interest rates, maintenance of low inflation, and so forth. The proponents of these comprehensive liberal reforms strongly believed that the 'miracle of the market' would eventually so lve the problems endemic to underdevelopment. A special role in this process